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Wandering albatross

Diomedea exulans Linnaeus,1758

Albatros hurleur
Albatros viajero

Updated on 6-Aug-2008

Critically Endangered

Endangered

Vulnerable

Near Threatened

Least Concern

Not Listed

Sometimes referred to as

Snowy albatross

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Taxonomy Conservation Listings and Plans Breeding Biology Breeding States Breeding Sites Conservation Listings and Plans for the Breeding Sites	Population Trends Breeding Sites: Threats Foraging Ecology and Diet Marine Distribution Marine Threats Key Gaps in Species Assessment	References Compiled by Contributors Recommended Citation

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Taxonomy

Order	Procellariiformes
Family	Diomedeidae
Genus	Diomedea
Species	D. exulans

Species D. exulans

Debate has long surrounded the taxonomy of the Wandering Albatross which until the early 1980’s was thought to be one species: Diomedea exulans (Linnaeus 1758). In 1983, Roux et al. [1

] then proposed, based on size and plumage maturation data, that the Wandering-type albatross breeding on Amsterdam Island in the Indian Ocean was a separate species (Diomedea amsterdamensis). Later Warham [2

] argued that D. amsterdamensis should be considered a subspecies of D. exulans and also proposed four additional subspecies within the complex: Diomedea exulans exulans, D. e. chionoptera, plus two others subspecies later named D. e. antipodensis and D. e. gibsoni by Robertson & Warham [3

]. Following rules of taxonomic precedence, Medway [4

] argued that the large, high latitude form should be named D. e. exulans (replacing chionoptera) while the smaller birds of the Tristan-Gough group be called D .e. dabbenena (replacing exulans). Robertson & Nunn [5

] did not adopt this nomenclature when they elevated the five subspecies to species level (Diomedea exulans; D. chionoptera; D. amsterdamensis; D. antipodensis and D. gibsoni), however Gales [6

] and Croxall & Gales [7

] followed Medway’s [4

] nomenclature and also recognised five species (Diomedea exulans; D. dabbenena; D. amsterdamensis; D. antipodensis and D. gibsoni). A detailed genetic study by Burg & Croxall [8

] showed four distinct taxa: Diomedea exulans; D. dabbenena; D. amsterdamensis plus D. antipodensis and D. gibsoni as a single grouping. Most recent publications recognise Diomedea exulans, D. dabbenena and D. amsterdamensis as full species [e.g. 9, 10, 11, but see 12

], however, the treatment of D. antipodensis and D. gibsoni currently varies between a single species, two subspecies, and two species [e.g. 9, 11, 13, 14

]. At the second meeting of the ACAP Advisory Committee in 2006 it was decided that available data did not justify the recognition of D. antipodensis and D. gibsoni as separate species and therefore these taxa were subsumed under the single name D. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross) [15

Conservation Listings and Plans

International
• Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels – Annex 1 [16 ]
• 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Vulnerable (since 2000) [17 ]
• Convention on Migratory Species - Listed Species (Appendix II) [18 ]

National - Australia
• Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC ACT) [19 ]
    - Listed Threatened Species – Vulnerable
    - Listed Migratory Species
    - Listed Marine Species
• Recovery Plan for Albatrosses and Petrels (2001) [20 ]
• Threat abatement plan for the incidental catch (or bycatch) of seabirds during oceanic longline fishing operations (2006) [21 ]

National - France
• Ministerial Order of 14 August 1998 (Arrêté du 14 août 1998) [22 ]
- Listed Protected Species

National - South Africa
• Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act, 1973 (Act No. 46 of 1973) (SBSPA) [23 ]
• Policy on the Management of Seals, Seabirds and Shorebirds: 2007 [24 ]
• National Plan of Action (NPOA) for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries (Draft 2002, under revision 2008) [25 ]

Regional - Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
• Falkland Islands FAO National Plan of Action for Reducing Incidental Catch of Seabirds In Longline Fisheries 2004 [26 ]
• Falkland Island Dependencies Conservation Ordinance 1975 [27 ]

Regional - Tasmania
• Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 [28 ]
- Listed Species - Endangered

Breeding Biology

Diomedea exulans is a biennial breeding species, although about 30% of successful and 35% of failed breeders (on average) defer breeding beyond the expected year [29

]. The total breeding season just exceeds one year (Table 1). Adults return to colonies in November, about 27 days before laying [30

]. Eggs are laid over a period of about 5 weeks during December – January, hatching mostly in March after mean incubation of 78-79 days [30

]. On South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur), most chicks fledge in December after 278 days in the nest, but about a week less on Crozet Islands [30

Birds usually return to colonies when 5-7 years old, although they can be as young as 3 years on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)[31

] and as old as 14 years on Crozet Islands [32

]. On Crozet Islands, D. exulans begin breeding when at least 7 years old (mean age 9.6 years for females and 10.4 years for males for 9 cohorts between 1982 and 1990) [33

], and on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) when at least 8 years old (mean age 10.4 years for females and 10.7 years for males for 1972 – 1980 cohorts) but had decreased by 1.3-1.6 years per decade by 1996 [29

Table 1. Breeding cycle of D.exulans.

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

At colonies

Egg laying

Incubating

Chick provisioning

Breeding States

Table 2. Distribution of the global D. exulans population among Parties to the Agreement that have jurisdiction over the breeding sites of ACAP listed species.

	Disputed*	Argentina	Australia	Chile	Ecuador	France	New Zealand	South Africa	United Kingdom
Breeding pairs	18%	*	<1%	-	-	38%	-	44%	*

*A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (Islas Georgias del Sur e Islas Sandwich del Sur) and the surrounding maritime areas.

Breeding Sites

Diomedea exulans breed on the French subantarctic island groups of Crozet and Kerguelen, on South Africa’s Prince Edward Islands, Australia’s Macquarie Island and on South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) (Table 2, Figure 1). The total annual breeding population, based on a combination of published and unpublished data submitted to ACAP in 2007, is estimated at approximately 8,050 pairs (Table 3). This is 5 percent less than the 1998 figure of 8,500 pairs, thought to represent about 28,000 mature individuals and a total population of 55,000 [6 ]. The three island groups in the Indian Ocean sector (Prince Edward, Crozet and Kerguelen) account for approximately 82% of the global population. Approximately 3,580 pairs, or 44% of the total population, breed on the Prince Edward Islands Group (including Marion Island). At the other extreme, the Macquarie Island population numbers only 5-10 breeding pairs annually.

Table 3. Monitoring methods and estimates of the population size (annual breeding pairs) for each breeding site. Table based on unpublished Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Water (DPIW) data (Macquarie Island), unpublished British Antarctic Survey (BAS) data (Bird Island), unpublished Robert JM Crawford and Bruce M Dyer data (Marion Island), unpublished H.Weimerskirch, CNRS Chizé Monitoring Database data (Ile de la Possession, Courbet Peninsula, Leygues Island), and published references as indicated.

Breeding site	Jurisdiction	Years monitored	Monitoring method	Monitoring accuracy	Annual Breeding pairs (last census)
Macquarie Island 54° 30’S, 158° 55’E	Australia	1964-2008	A	High	5 (2008)
Total % of all sites					5 0.1%
Crozet Islands 46° 26’S, 51° 47’E Ile de la Possession Ile aux Cochons Ile de l’Est Îles des Apôtres	France	1960,1968-1969,1975-1977, 1981-2008 1976 1982 1982	A A A A	High High High high	349 (2008) 1,060 (1998) ^{[6 ]} 329 (1982) ^{[34 ]} 120 (1982) ^{[34 ]}
Total % of all sites					1,858 23.1%
Kerguelen Islands 49° 09’S, 69° 16’E Courbet Peninsula Rallier du Baty Peninsula Joffre Peninsula and Is, Howe Is, other islets Nuageuses Is. Baie Larose Leygues Is	France	1971, 1985, 1987, 1989-1993, 1996-2007 1987 1987 1985 1986	A A A A Unknown	Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown	385 (2007) 750 (1987) ^{[35 ]} 35 (1987) ^{[35 ]} 14 (1985) ^{[35 ]} 3 (1986)
Total % of all sites					1,187 14.7%
Prince Edward Island 46° 38’S, 37° 57’E Marion Island 46° 54’S, 37° 45’E	South Africa	1984, 2002 1975-2007	A A	High High	1,850 (2002) ^{[36 ]} 1,730 (2007)
Total % of all sites					3,580 44.5%
South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) 54° 00’S, 38° 36’W Bird Island Albatross Island Annekov Island Prion Island Saddle Island Cape Alexandra Other sites	Disputed*	1972-2007 1984,2004 1984,2004 1984,2004 1984,2004 1984,2004 1984,2004	A A A A A A A	High High High High High High High	802 (2007) 155 (2004) ^{[37 ]} 193 (2004) ^{[37 ]} 43 (2004) ^{[37 ]} 40 (2004) ^{[37 ]} 40 (2004) ^{[37 ]} 147 (2004) ^{[37 ]}
Total % of all sites					1,420 17.6%
*Total for all sites*					*8,050*

* see Table 2 footnote

Breeding site name	Jurisdiction	Latitude	Longitude	Size of breeding site (hectares)
Albatross Island (SGSSI (IGSISS)), Albatross Island (SGSSI (IGSISS))	Disputed	54° 00' 09" S	37° 19' 54" W	10,000
Annenkov Island, Annenkov Island	Disputed	54° 29' 34" S	37° 03' 50" W	140,000
Baie Larose, Kerguelen (Grande Terre)	France	49° 35' S	69° 25' E	200,000
Baudin Islets, Baudin islets	France	48° 53' S	69° 27' E
Bird Island (SGSSI (IGSISS)), Bird Island (SGSSI (IGSISS))	Disputed	54° 00' 22" S	38° 02' 27" W	50,000
Briand Island, Briand island	France	48° 54' S	69° 26' E
Courbet Peninsula, Kerguelen (Grande Terre)	France	49° 09' S	70° 22' E	6,000,000
Crescent Island, Crescent Island	Disputed	54° 00' 53" S	37° 18' 60" W
Dayman Island, Dayman island	France	48° 50' S	69° 32' E
Francis island, Francis island	France	49° 00' S	69° 39' E
Grande Coulée, Kerguelen (Grande Terre)	France	49° 40' 25" S	68° 45' 10" E
Hallet Island, Hallet island	France	48° 53' S	69° 29' E
Howe Island, Howe Island	France	48° 52' S	69° 25' E
Ile aux Cochons, Ile aux Cochons	France	46° 05' S	50° 15' E	660,000
Ile de l'Est, Ile de l'Est	France	46° 25' S	52° 10' E	1,300,000
Ile de la Possession, Ile de la Possession	France	46° 24' S	51° 45' E	1,460,000
Ile des Apotres, Ile des Apotres	France	45° 58' S	50° 27' E	80,000
Iles Leygues , Iles Leygues	France	48° 41' S	69° 29' E	240,000
Iles Nuageuses, Iles Nuageuses & Clugny	France	48° 38' S	68° 39' E	2,400,000
Inner Lee Island, Inner Lee Island	Disputed	54° 02' 31" S	37° 15' 25" W
Invisible Island, Invisible Island	Disputed	54° 01' 03" S	37° 18' 33" W
Joffre Peninsula, Kerguelen (Grande Terre)	France	49° 05' S	69° 30' E	2,000,000
Kupriyanov Islands, Kupriyanov Islands	Disputed	54° 45' 49" S	36° 19' 42" W
Mac Murdo island, Mac Murdo island	France	48° 53' S	69° 24' E
Macquarie Island, Macquarie Island	Australia	54° 37' 11" S	158° 51' 39" E
Marion Island, Marion Island	South Africa	46° 54' S	37° 45' E	29,000
Mollymawk Island, Mollymawk Island	Disputed	54° 00' 39" S	37° 18' 45" W
Northwest, South Georgia	Disputed	54° 19' 35" S	36° 49' 50" W	7,500,000
Nunez Peninsula and Cape Rosa, South Georgia	Disputed	54° 19' 35" S	36° 49' 50" W	1,300,000
Outer Lee Island, Outer Lee Island	Disputed	54° 01' 56" S	37° 13' 59" W
Petrel Island, Petrel Island	Disputed	54° 02' 18" S	37° 17' 00" W
Pingouins Island, Ile des Pingouins	France	46° 25' S	50° 25' E
Prince de Galles Peninsula, Kerguelen (Grande Terre)	France	49° 26' S	70° 42' E	300,000
Prince Edward Island, Prince Edward Island	South Africa	46° 38' S	37° 57' E	4,500
Prion Island, Prion Island	Disputed	54° 01' 22" S	37° 15' 06" W
Proud Island, Proud Island	Disputed	54° 00' 35" S	38° 08' 13" W
Rallier du Baty Peninsula, Kerguelen (Grande Terre)	France	49° 35' S	68° 50' E	2,700,000
Saddle Island, Saddle Island	Disputed	54° 08' 25" S	37° 44' 52" W	10,000
Samuel Island, Samuel Islands	Disputed	54° 11' 17" S	37° 37' 14" W
Sibbald island, Sibbald island	France	48° 55' S	69° 36' E
Skua Island, Skua Island (SGSSI (IGSISS))	Disputed	54° 01' 10" S	37° 14' 55" W
South Coast, South Georgia	Disputed	54° 19' 35" S	36° 49' 50" W	10,000,000
Veau Marin island, Veau Marin island	France	48° 56' S	69° 37' E

Conservation Listings and Plans for the Breeding Sites

International
Macquarie Island
• UNESCO World Heritage List (inscribed 1997) [38 ]
• UNSECO Biosphere Reserve - Man and the Biosphere Programme (listed 1977) [39 ]

Prince Edward Islands
• RAMSAR Convention List of Wetlands of International Importance (inscribed 2007) [40 ]

National - South Africa
Prince Edward Islands
• Special Nature Reserve - Environment Conservation Act (No. 73 of 1989), declared in 1995 [41 ]
• Prince Edward Islands Management Plan 1996 [42 ]

National - France
Crozet and Kerguelen Islands
• National Nature Reserve (Décret no 2006-1211) [43 ]

National – Australia
Macquarie Island
• Register of Critical Habitat - listed 2002 (EPBC Act 1999) [44 ]
• Register of the National Estate (until February 2012) – listed 1977 (Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975) [45 ]
• National Heritage List – listed 2007 (EPBC Act 1999) [44 ]

Regional – French Southern and Antarctic Territories (Terres australes et antarctiques françaises, TAAF)
Ilots des Apõtres
• Controlled access areas (Arrêté 15 du 30 juillet 1985) [46 ]

Regional – South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur)
• South Georgia Environmental Management Plan [47 ]
• South Georgia: Plan for Progress. Managing the Environment 2006 – 2010 [48 ]

Bird Island, Albatross Island and Annekov Island
• Specially Protected Area (SPA) - South Georgia: Plan for Progress. Managing the Environment 2006 – 2010 [48 ]

Regional – Tasmania
Macquarie Island
• Nature Reserve - Nature Conservation Act 2002 [49 ]
• Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan 2006 [50 ]
• Plan for the Eradication of Rabbits and Rodents on Subantarctic Macquarie Island 2007 [51 ]

Population Trends

Long term population studies have been conducted on all five islands or island groups where D. exulans breed (Table 4). All populations have shown a decrease at some stage over the last 25 years. The Indian Ocean populations (Crozet, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands) have increased recently, whereas the South Georgia population has shown a continuous decline. The status of the extremely small population on Macquarie Island is currently uncertain, with relative trends in numbers and survival in the past similar to those observed in the Indian Ocean populations, prior to an apparent decline in recent years.

South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur)

The Bird Island population, which accounted for approximately 60% of the South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) population in 2004 [37

], has been monitored continuously since 1972. Since then, it has been declining at an average rate of 1.4% [52

] per year (Table 4). The steady average annual decline of 0.61% between 1972 and 1996 has recently accelerated to c. 4.8% per annum since 1996 [52

] (Figure 2). Poncet et al (2006) [37

] have recorded an overall decrease of c. 30% from 1984 to 2004 at Bird Island and at the other 29 breeding sites on South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur)

Between 1977 and 1990, breeding success on Bird Island had increased by approximately 1.2% pa, or 15% overall [29

]. Between 1991 and 1995 it decreased slightly (median values of 68% vs 71 % for the previous 5 year period) [29

]. Mean success between 1976-2004 at Bird Island was 67%, compared with over 70% between 2000-2002 at Albatross Island, and between 1999-2000 at Prion Island (Poncet unpublished, Table 5). Juvenile survival of around 50% is comparable to the other breeding sites [29

]. Adult survival however is the lowest of all breeding sites at 92.6% (Table 5), down from 94% between 1972-1985 [53

]. This decrease in survival rates is contributing to the population decline and is linked to the development of longline fisheries targeting species other than tuna in the mid to late 1990s [29

Crozet Islands and Kerguelen

The breeding population of D. exulans on Ile de la Possession (Crozet Islands) has been one of the most closely monitored of all albatross populations, with long term demographic data collected for a large number of birds. This population decreased steeply during the 1970s (around 7% pa between 1970 and 1976), then more moderately during the early 1980s (1.4 % pa from 1977 to 1985) [54

]. By 1986, the population has been reduced by 53.8% from c. 500 pairs observed in the late 1960s[54

]. Between 1986 and 2004 the population has increased steadily at 1.6% (Figure 3, Table 4) [55

]. Over the last few years the numbers have been maintained at 300 to 380 pairs (unpublished data, CNRS Chizé Monitoring Database).

Breeding success and adult and juvenile survival have also increased since 1985 after a period of reduced adult, and to a lesser extent juvenile survival in the 1970s [54, 56

]. Although demographic data is lacking for the Kerguelen Islands, the population trend has followed a similar pattern to that at Crozet Islands [56

]. The Courbet Peninsula population declined from c. 500 pairs in 1971 to c. 200 pairs in 1987, and then recovered to over 300 pairs in 1996, reaching 385 breeding pairs in 2007 (unpublished data, CNRS Chizé Monitoring Database).

The slow upward trend for both island groups is a reflection of improved adult survival and recruitment attributed to the Japanese long-line southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus spp.) fishery in the Indian Ocean moving away from the islands [56

Prince Edward and Marion Island

The number of D. exulans breeding pairs on Marion Island have also decreased steadily from the mid 1970s to mid 1980s (at -1.5% pa) and then increased through the 1990s at c. 5.5% pa [57

], but this rate of increase has not been sustained in recent years. Instead, the population has been declining at an average of 1.5% per year [52

] between 1998 and 2007 (Figure 3). The overall average rate of population increase since 1975 has been less than 0.5% per year [52

] (Table 5).

Breeding success on Marion Island has fallen from an average of 74.6% between 1985 and 2001 [58

] to 67.7% for 2002-2007 (Table 5). Juvenile survival has been estimated, but rates are not directly comparable with other islands because of the inclusion of different age classes in analyses. Adult survival since 1985 (to 2001) has been calculated at 94.2% [58

]. Long term census data has not been collected on Prince Edward Island.

Table 4. Summary of population trend data for the main D. exulans populations.

Breeding site	Current Monitoring	Trend Years	% average change per year ^{[52 ]} (95% Confidence Interval)	Trend	Sample size monitored
Macquarie Island	yes	1964-2008 1965-1984 1984-1999 1999-2008	- -9.32% (-7.79, - 10.85) 6.25 (4.17, 8.33) -4.27 (0.16, -8.70)	Variable Declining Increasing Uncertain	100% 100% 100% 100%
South Georgia Bird Island Albatross Island Annekov Island	yes no no	1972-2007^ 1972-1996^ 1996-2007 1984, 2004 1984, 2004	-1.38 (-1.42, -1.30) -0.61 (-0.47, -0.75) -4.77 (-5.10, -4.44) - -	Declining Declining Declining - -	100% 100% 100% - -
Prince Edward Island Marion Island	no yes	1984, 2002 1975-2007^ 1998-2007	- 0.41 (0.29, 0.53) -1.50 (-0.99, -2.01)	Unknown Increasing Declining	- 100% 100%
Crozet Islands Île de la Possession Île aux Cochons Île de l’Est Îles des Apôtres	yes no no no	1969-1985^ 1986-2004 - - -	-3.0 (-4.6, -1.4) [55 ] 1.6 (0.6, 2.6) [55 ] ^- ^- ^-	Declining* Increasing* - - -	100% 100% - - -
Kerguelen Islands Courbet Peninsula Rallier du Baty Peninsula	yes no	1971-2007 -	^- ^-	Currently Declining?* -	100% -

^ missing data: Bird Island 1975; Marion Island 1976, 1978-1981; Ile de la Possession 1969-1974, 1978

*trend not calculated in this assessment

Macquarie Island

The discovery of numerous albatross bones in a cave on the west coast of the island suggests that prior to Macquarie Island being used as a sealing base in the 1800s the D. exulans population was much larger than the current 5-10 annual breeding pairs [59, 60

]. This extremely small population has approached extinction at least twice in the last 100 years [59, 60

]. A long term demographic study began in 1994 but data extracted from historical logbooks going back to 1964 suggests numbers of breeding pairs have fluctuated considerably since the 1960s, with a maximum of 28 in 1968 and minimum of 2 in 1985 [60

] (Figure 4). After a period of decline during the 1970s and early 1980s (at 9.32% pa between 1965 and 1984 [52

], Table 4), the population has been recovering at an average of 6.25% per year between 1984 and 1999 [52

] (Table 4). However, given the high variability in counts, the underlying trend since 1999 is not clear-cut, with no significant increase or decline (Table 4).

Breeding success data has been collected continuously since 1964 and varies from 29 to 100%, currently averaging 63.5% ([60

] and unpublished DPIW data). Most chicks that fledged between 1955 and 1994 were banded, and all chicks and most unbanded adults have been banded since 1995 [60

]. Juvenile survival has varied significantly between 1955 and 1998, but has been increasing in most years since 1979 [60

]. Recent estimates put juvenile survival at 45.9 % (Table 5). As for the Atlantic Ocean sites, the population fluctuations have been underpinned by changes in (mostly) juvenile survival which coincided with changes in bluefin tuna long-line fishing effort in the Southern Ocean [59, 60

]. Adult survival has been more stable than juvenile survival in the same period and latest estimates of 95.3% [60

] are the highest of any breeding site (but note the different time periods).

Table 5. Demographic data for the main D. exulans breeding sites. Table based on unpublished DPIW data (Macquarie Island), Poncet, unpublished (South Georgia/Georgias del Sur) and published references where indicated.

Breeding site	Mean breeding success (±SD; Years)	Mean juvenile survival (±SE; Years)	Mean adult survival (±SD; Years)
Macquarie Island	63.5% (±16.9; 1964-2006)	45.9% (±3.5; 1955-2004)¹^{[60 ]}	95.3% (±0.6 SE; 1955-2004)^{[60 ]}
South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) Bird Island Albatross Island Prion Island	67.0% (±1.0 SE;1976-2004) 72.0% (2000-2002) 74.0% (1999,2000)	48.9-52.4% (1972-1993)^{2 [29 ]} No data No data	92.6% (1976-2000) No data No data
Marion Island	74.6% (±4.2; 1985-2001) ^{[58 ]}	89.9% (±0.4; 1988-2000)³ ^{[58 ]} No data	94.2% (±0.8; 1985-2001) ^{[58 ]} No data
Prince Edward Island	67.7% (±12.3; 2002-2007) No data	89.9% (±0.4; 1988-2000)³ ^{[58 ]} No data	94.2% (±0.8; 1985-2001) ^{[58 ]} No data
Crozet Islands Ile de la Possession ^{[54 ]}	68.5% (±11.2; 1966-1993) 73.6% (±0.7; 1981-2005) ^{[55 ]}	38.2% (±13.9 SD; 1966-1993)²	93.1% (±1.8; 1966-1995)
Kerguelen Islands	(1999-2008)	Annually since 1999	Annually since 1999

¹survival to first resighting

²survival to 5 years of age

³survival to 10 years of age

Breeding Sites: Threats

All breeding sites of D. exulans are legally protected and access is restricted.

Table 6. Summary of known threats at the breeding sites of D. exulans. Table based on information submitted to the ACAP Breeding Sites Workign Group in 2008.

Breeding site	Human disturbance	Human take	Natural disaster	Parasite or Pathogen	Habitat loss or degradation	Predation by alien species	Contamination
Macquarie Island	No	No	No	No	No ^a	No ^a	No
South Georgia	No	No	No	No	? ^b	No ^c	No ^d
Prince Edward Island Marion Island	No No	No No	No No	No No	No No	No No	No No
Crozet Islands Ile de la Possession Ile aux Cochons Ile de l’Est	No No No	No No No	No No No	No No No	No No ^e No ^e	No Low ^c No	No No No
Kerguelen Islands Rallier du Baty Peninsula Courbet Peninsula Joffre Peninsula Howe Island Baie Larose	No No No No No	No No No No No	No No No No No	No No No No No	No ^e No ^e No ^e No ^e No ^e	Low ^c Low ^c Low ^c No Low ^c	No No No No No

^a Cats have been removed from Macquarie Island by 2000, and the eradication of rabbits and rodents is planned for 2010 [51 ].

^bThere has bee extensive habitat loss and degradation at South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) due to activities of Antarctic Fur Seal Arctocephalus gazella (J. Croxall pers. comm.).

^cPredation by cats occurs on Kerguelen Islands and on Ile aux Cochons. Rats are found on Kerguelen Islands, Ile de la Possession and South Gerogia (Georgias del Sur), while mice are present on Ile de la Possession, Ile aux Cochons and Kerguelen Islands but there is no evidence of impact on D. exualns from either speciesat any of the sites.

^dA couple of birds have been reported with oil contamination (UK reports to CCAMLR).

^eRabbits on Ile aux Cochons and Ile de l’Est (Crozet Islands) as well as on Rallier du Baty Peninsula, Courbet Peninsula, Joffre Peninsula and Howe Island (Kerguelen Islands) cause browsing damage to the vegetation, and reindeer on Courbet Peninsula, Joffre Peninsula and at Baie Larose browse and trample the habitat but these impacts have not been reported to affect the D. exulans populations to a large degree.

Threats

Nature of threat	Threat sub-category	Severity of threat	Scope of threat	Breeding site name	Threat species
Parasite or pathogen	Pathogen	Low	High	Bird Island (SGSSI (IGSISS))	Avian Influenza
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	High	Courbet Peninsula	Felis catus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	Low	Marion Island	Mus musculus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	High	Courbet Peninsula	Felis catus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	Low	Marion Island	Mus musculus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	High	Courbet Peninsula	Felis catus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	Low	Marion Island	Mus musculus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	Low	High	Courbet Peninsula	Felis catus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	High	High	Marion Island	Mus musculus
Predation by alien species	Predation by alien species	High	High	Marion Island	Mus musculus

Foraging Ecology and Diet

Diomedea exulans are mostly diurnal feeders [61 ], taking most prey by surface seizing [62 ]. Diomedea exulans are well known for following fishing vessels, often in large groups and vigorously competing for fisheries discards. Fish and cephalopods are the main components of the D. exulans diet, with a wide variety of species caught or scavenged (c. 50 squid species and c. 10 fish species) [63-70 ]. Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides is the primary fish species in the diet, potentially obtained as discarded offal [68 ].

The D. exulans diet on Bird Island, South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur), is perhaps the best documented. During brood-guard period, in March-April (2000), fish dominated the diet by mass (45.6%) and occurred in 66.6% of samples, with Patagonian toothfish the main species in terms of mass (34.3%, in 11.1% of samples). Cephalopods contributed 32% by mass (66.6% of samples), Kondakovia longimana alone making up 30.1% of total mass in 11.1% of samples [65

]. Crustaceans, mostly krill (Euphasia superba), were also important, comprising 12.4% of total diet by mass in 33.3% of samples, with jellyfish (Scyphozoa) providing 9.9% of diet by mass in 22.2% of samples [65

During chick-rearing in May-July (1999-2000), a study comparing inter-annual variation in foraging preferences found that fish also dominated the diet by mass in both years (53.1 – 84.4% in 83 – 100% of samples). Patagonian toothfish was again the most important species (43.4% in 1999, 63.1% in 2000), with Cephalopods (predominantly K. longimana) accounting for 11.3% (2000) to 42.1% (1999) of diet and occurring in 50-83% of the samples. Compared with the brood-guard period however, crustaceans and jellyfish were very rare, with carrion a minor item at around 4% of total mass collected [66

Squid (mainly Moroteuthis ingens) were the preferred food source (72.4% of fresh mass in 91.7% of samples) of D. exulans on Ile de la Possession during chick-rearing (July), and fish (mostly D. eleginoides) accounted for 24.3% of the diet (41.7% of samples), with carrion a minor item at 3.3% [67

]. On Marion Island D. exulans also mostly consumed cephalopods (58.6% by mass, 96% of samples), and fish (36.5% by mass, 60% of samples) [69

]. Analysis of dietary material from Macquarie Island revealed 18 cephalopod species (some likely to have been ingested secondarily) but no fish remains [71

Marine Distribution

This wide ranging species has a circumpolar distribution, and both breeding and non-breeding birds have very large foraging ranges. Satellite tracking data indicate that breeding birds forage at very long distances from colonies (up to 4,000 km) and that foraging strategies change throughout the breeding season [72 ].

During early incubation, D. exulans from Crozet, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands forage over pelagic waters between the Antarctic continent and subtropical latitudes [56, 72, 73

]. Males breeding on Crozet forage in the Kerguelen shelf area, but not females [56

]. Females forage further from the islands and in warmer waters [67, 72-74

]. During late incubation and early post-hatching, foraging is reduced to the edge of the island shelf in close proximity to the breeding grounds [73, 74

]. During early chick rearing, the foraging ranges of Marion and Crozet birds (c. 1000km apart) are almost totally non-overlapping [58

]. During later stages of chick-rearing, D. exulans forage in short trips close to the colony in neritic waters, or in long trips far from the colony in oceanic waters to the north [67, 73, 74

]

Non-breeding and juvenile birds remain north of 50°S between subantarctic and subtropical waters with a significant proportion crossing the Indian Ocean to wintering grounds around the southern and eastern coast of Australia [75, 76

Breeding D. exulans from South Georgia(Islas Georgias del Sur) range widely between southern Brazil (25°S) and the Antarctic Peninsula (68°S), and between waters off Tristan de Cunha (19°W) to the Patagonian Shelf in the west and up to 85°W off the Pacific coast off southern Chile [66, 77 ], almost entirely in waters deeper than 1000m [78 ]. During the brooding period however, (March to Mid-May), foraging trips are mostly restricted to the South Georgia shelf and shelf-slope areas [77 ]. From May to October, chick rearing adults of both sexes spread out to upwelling areas over the outer slope of the Patagonian Shelf [77, 79 ]. Just like their counterparts in the Indian Ocean, females tend to focus on the more northerly areas, particularly east of the mouth of Rio de la Plata and east of Peninsula Valdez. Males are more common in the south, along the southern boundary from Diego Ramirez to Burdwood Bank. There is substantial overlap but males are rare north of Rio de la Plata and females seldom venture into the south western sector between Staten Island and Diego Ramirez [79 ]. The southern Patagonian Shelf is utilised by non-breeding birds also, and hence is an important foraging area all year round [80 ].

Outside the breeding season, recoveries and limited satellite tracking data indicate initial dispersal across the South Atlantic Ocean to areas off South Africa on the coastal shelf, shelf-slope and adjacent oceanic, followed by migration across the Indian Ocean to winter in south-eastern Australian waters [77

Given the small size of the population, only limited numbers of D. exulans from Macquarie Island have been tracked. Breeding females during incubation foraged north of Macquarie Island in waters surrounding southern Tasmania. Males foraged in the open waters of the Southern Ocean, south of 50° S and mirroring the spatial segregation seen in other populations. Juvenile and subadult birds were concentrated in lower latitudes north and east of Macquarie Island in Pacific waters, the south east coast of Australia and the New Zealand waters. A single adult tracked during the winter non breeding dispersal showed a circumpolar distribution (R. Alderman pers. comm.; DPIW unpublished data).

Diomedea exulans overlap with six Regional Fisheries Management Organisations known to be particularly important to albatross and petrel conservation, but principally the WCPFC, CCAMLR, CCSBT, IOTC and ICCAT which encompass or are close to the breeding sites (Figure 1; Table 7). The species also overlaps with SWIOFC (South-West Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission), SIOFA (Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement), and SEAFO (South-East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation), aimed at ensuring the long-term conservation and sustainable use of fishery resources other than tuna. Although those RFMOs are principally responsible for trawl and artisanal fisheries where albatross mortality is not well documented, SEAFO also manages some pelagic species like the Patagonian toothfish. Consultations are also currently underway to establish the South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation (SPRFMO) that would cover both pelagic and demersal fisheries in the region (predominantly discrete high seas stocks and those stocks which straddle the high seas and the EEZs of coastal states) and which overlap with D. exulans. France, South Africa, Australia and UK/Argentina are the principal Range States for D. exulans(Figure 1; Table 7).

Table 7. Summary of the known ACAP Range States, non-ACAP Exclusive Economic Zones and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations that overlap with the marine distribution of D. exulans. Brazil has signed the Agreement in June 2001, but is yet to ratify it.

	Frequency of occurrence in region
	Resident/ Breeding and feeding range	Foraging range only	Few records - outside core foraging range

Known ACAP Range States	Australia France South Africa	Chile New Zealand Brazil Uruguay

Non ACAP Range States	Disputed

Regional Fisheries Management Organisations	WCPFC CCAMLR CCSBT SIOFA SWIOFC	IOTC IATTC ICCAT SEAFO SPRFMO

Exclusive Economic Zones of non-ACAP countries		Namibia

CCAMLR - Comission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
CCSBT - Convention for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna
IOTC - Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
IATTC - Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
ICCAT - International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
SPRFMO - South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation
SEAFO - South-East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation
SWIOFC - South-West Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission
SIOFA - Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement
WCPFC - Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission

Marine Threats

The major threat affecting D. exulans (as with many other albatross and petrel species) is incidental mortality in long-line fishing operations. The growth of the southern bluefin tuna long-line fishery in the Southern Ocean until the mid 1980s and subsequent development of the Patagonian toothfish long-line fishery coincided with the steady decline of D. exulans populations at Crozet, Kerguelen and Marion Island [56, 57 ]. Although the increased adult survival and upward trends in the Crozet population since the 1980s are thought to be related to the tuna fishery moving further away from the colony [56 ], there is still a high degree of overlap with long-line fisheries in the region [81 ], and recovery is hindered by low juvenile survival [76 ]. Juvenile birds forage mainly in subtropical Indian Ocean waters where the tuna long-line fishery has expanded in recent times [56, 76 ].

Diomedea exulans overlap with longline fisheries throughout the year and will be impacted by even low bycatch rates due to their small population size, but rates and risk of incidental mortality can be affected by seasonal variation in albatross distribution and fishing effort [81

]. For instance, D. exulans from Marion Island showed high spatial overlap with the local Patagonian toothfish long-line fishery during early chick rearing, and this was especially true for males, as females foraged more to the north and hence interacted more with tuna long-line fisheries [74

]. During late chick-rearing and the non-breeding period, Marion Island and Crozet populations overlap spatially within areas of intense tuna long-line fishing effort south of South Africa [74

] where bycatch rates are high [81

]. Non breeding birds foraging in warmer waters show the highest spatial overlap with tuna fisheries [74

The recent development of new long-line fisheries throughout the length of the South American coastal shelf-slope has also greatly increased interactions with the South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) populations. During chick rearing, D. exualns potentially interact with Patagonian toothfish fisheries on the Patagonian shelf and around Sough Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur), and with the oceanic long-line tuna fishery in the south Atlantic oceanic waters (30-60° W and south of 30°) [66

]. Females are more likely to interact with the pelagic tuna fishery [66, 77

] and juveniles and dispersing adults are likely to encounter longliners outside the western south Atlantic, e.g. off the coast of Brazil and Uruguay where this species has been reported as bycatch [82

]. Outside the breeding season, birds from the Atlantic sector are also at risk from southern bluefin tuna long-line fishing operationsoff south Africa (shelf, shelf slope and adjacent oceanic areas) and in the Tasman sea, off eastern and southern New Zealand, because of their circumpolar migrations [56, 83, 84

Chicks are also vulnerable to accumulation of anthropogenic marine debris and fishery-related debris such as secondary ingestion of discarded hooks [74

Key Gaps in Species Assessment

Diomedea exulans is one of the most comprehensively studied albatross species. Extensive time series data are available for all island groups, and demographic parameters are also well documented. Monitoring should be continued to clarify population trends and consolidate our knowledge of survival and production rates and their relationship with fisheries interactions. However, regular surveys have not been conducted on Prince Edward Island which hosts a large population of D. exulans (c. 23% of global breeding pairs), and this site would benefit from the establishment of a monitoring programme. Likewise, some of the other sites holding smaller populations have been monitored very sporadically.

There is an urgent need to improve our understanding of the movements and distribution of immature birds in relation to long-line fisheries, especially in international subtropical waters where a large tuna fishery has recently expanded [76

]. This will be aided by a 3 year programme dedicated to satellite tracking of immatures and juveniles which commenced in 2007 (H.Weimerskirch pers. comm.). The areas where there is a significant overlap between D. exulans and fisheries/RFMOs but where effective mitigation and observer programmes are not in place also need to be confirmed.

References

[1] Roux, J.-P., Jouventin, P., Mougin, J.-L., Stahl, J.-C., and Weimerskirch, H. 1983. Un nouvelle albatros Diomedea amsterdamensis n. sp. decouvert sur I'Ile Amsterdam (37o, 50'S, 77o35'E). Oiseau Revue fr. Orn. 53: p. 1-11.

[2] Warham, J. 1990. The petrels - their ecology and breeding systems. London: Academic Press.

[3] Robertson, C.J.R. and Warham, J. 1992. Nomenclature of the New Zealand Wandering Albatrosses Diomedea exulans. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 112: p. 74-81.

[4] Medway, D.G. 1993. The identity of the Chocolate Albatross Diomedea spadicea of Gmelin, 1789 and of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans of Linnaeus, 1758. Notornis. 40: p. 145-162.

[4] Medway, D.G. 1993. The identity of the Chocolate Albatross Diomedea spadicea of Gmelin, 1789 and of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans of Linnaeus, 1758. Notornis. 40: p. 145-162.

[5] Robertson, C.J. and Nunn, G.B. 1998 Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses, in Albatross biology and conservation, G. Robertson and R. Gales, Editors., Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton. p. 13-19.

[6] Gales, R. 1998 Albatross populations: status and threats, in Albatross Biology and Conservation, G. Robertson and R. Gales, Editors., Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton. p. 20-45.

[7] Croxall, J.P. and Gales, R. 1998 An assessment of the conservation status of albatrosses, in Albatross Biology and Conservation, G. Robertson and R. Gales, Editors., Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton. p. 46-65.

[8] Burg, T.M. and Croxall, J.P. 2004. Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex. Molecular Ecology. 13: p. 2345-2355.

[9] Shirihai, H. 2002. A complete guide to Antarctic wildlife. Degerby, Finland: Alula Press.

[10] BirdLife International. 2004. Tracking Ocean Wanderers: the global distribution of albatrosses and petrels. Results from the Global Procellariiform Tracking Workshop, 1-5 September, 2003, Gordon's Bay, South Africa. Cambridge UK: Birdlife International.

Compiled by

Wieslawa Misiak

ACAP Species Assessments Project

Contributors

Rachael Alderman

DPIW, Tasmania, Australia

John Croxall

BirdLife International, UK